Vesiculobullous and desquamating skin disorders: Pathology review

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Vesiculobullous and desquamating skin disorders: Pathology review

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Introduction to the skeletal system
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Clinical conditions

Abdominal quadrants, regions and planes
Anatomy of the abdominal viscera: Blood supply of the foregut, midgut and hindgut
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Gas exchange in the lungs, blood and tissues
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Regulation of pulmonary blood flow
Respiratory system anatomy and physiology
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Ventilation-perfusion ratios and V/Q mismatch
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Frank-Starling relationship
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Pressure-volume loops
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Anatomy of the abdominal viscera: Blood supply of the foregut, midgut and hindgut
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Anatomy of the abdominal viscera: Large intestine
Anatomy of the abdominal viscera: Small intestine
Anatomy of the gastrointestinal organs of the pelvis and perineum
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Candida
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Skin anatomy and physiology
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Pigmentation skin disorders: Pathology review
Skin cancer: Pathology review
Vesiculobullous and desquamating skin disorders: Pathology review
Anatomy of the heart
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Hunger and satiety
Anxiety disorders, phobias and stress-related disorders: Pathology Review
Breast cancer: Pathology review
Colorectal polyps and cancer: Pathology review
Dementia: Pathology review
Diabetes mellitus: Pathology review
GERD, peptic ulcers, gastritis, and stomach cancer: Pathology review
Heart failure: Pathology review
HIV and AIDS: Pathology review
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Inflammatory bowel disease: Pathology review
Jaundice: Pathology review
Lung cancer and mesothelioma: Pathology review
Malabsorption syndromes: Pathology review
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Tuberculosis: Pathology review

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A 23-year-old man was admitted five days ago to the burn ward after suffering severe lower extremity burns at work. On admission, the patient was started on prophylactic antibiotics. Currently, temperature is 39 ºC (102.2 ºF), pulse is 120/minute, blood pressure is 98/55, and respirations are 20/minute. Examination of the burn wounds shows blue-green purulent discharge. Microscopic and laboratory examination of the discharge show Gram-negative catalase-positive bacteria. Which of the following organisms is the most likely cause of this patient’s condition?  

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At the dermatology clinic, 58 year old Alan presents complaining of painful lesions on his skin and mouth for the past two months. On examination, there are flaccid bullae with erosions all over his trunk and extremities, as well as erosions on the oral and gingival mucosa. When lateral pressure is applied to a lesion, the outermost layer seems to slough off.

On the same day, 17 year old Gabriella comes in with an intensely itchy rash that appeared a couple of weeks ago. She has also experienced frequent nausea and diarrhea after meals. Physical examination shows multiple papules, vesicles, and bullae on both of her knees, forearms, and elbows, as well as her back and buttocks. Lab tests reveal elevated levels of anti-gliadin IgA and IgM. Based on the initial presentation, Alan and Gabriella seem to have some form of vesiculobullous or desquamating skin disorder.

Okay, first, let’s talk about physiology real quick. Normally, the skin is divided into three main layers, the epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis. The hypodermis is made of fat and connective tissue that anchors the skin to the underlying muscle. Above the hypodermis is the dermis, containing hair follicles, nerve endings, glands, blood and lymph vessels. And above the dermis is the epidermis, which contains 5 layers of developing keratinocytes.

Keratinocytes start their life at the lowest layer of the epidermis, so the stratum basale or basal layer. As keratinocytes in the stratum basale mature, they migrate into the next layers of the epidermis, called the stratum spinosum, stratum granulosum, stratum lucidum, and finally, the stratum corneum, which is the uppermost and thickest epidermal layer.

Before we dive into the various inflammatory skin disorders, there are several high yield terms to describe skin lesions. The most important here are the vesicles, which are up to 1 centimeter in diameter and look like clear blisters filled with fluid, and bullae, which are fluid-filled blisters larger than 1 centimeter.

All right then, onto vesiculobullous and desquamating skin disorders! Let’s start with autoimmune blistering diseases, which are a group of autoimmune disorders that affect the skin and mucous membrane like those found in the mouth. They are caused by a type II hypersensitivity reaction. That’s when the immune system B cells produce antibodies that bind to the body's own proteins. A disorder belonging to this group is pemphigus vulgaris, which is mainly seen in adults between the age of 40 and 60.

Now normally, the epidermal cells, particularly those in stratum spinosum, are bound together by proteins called desmosomes, while other proteins called hemidesmosomes anchor basal cells to the basement membrane. In pemphigus vulgaris, there are IgG autoantibodies that can bind to the desmosome proteins, desmoglein 1 and 3.

As a result, the epidermal cells become separated from each other; this phenomenon is called acantholysis. Now, in pemphigus vulgaris, the hemidesmosomes are not affected, so cells remain attached to the basement membrane. Upon histology, this kind of looks like a row of tombstones, and is called tombstoning.

Now, the result is the formation of intraepidermal blisters or bullae characteristic of pemphigus vulgaris. These blisters or bullae are flaccid, meaning that they may easily slough off and give rise to very painful erosions. Erosions are frequently seen in the oral mucosa, which can make it hard for these individuals to eat.

Now for diagnosis, a classic sign of pemphigus vulgaris is the Nikolsky sign. This is when lateral pressure is applied to the lesion, and it causes a split to form between the upper and lower layers of the epidermis. In addition, a skin biopsy can be performed to look for signs of acantholysis and tombstoning. Direct immunofluorescence can also be useful; that’s where antibodies marked with fluorescent molecules are used to tag the autoreactive IgG antibodies, which are attaching to the intercellular desmosomes. This appears with a reticular or ‘fish net’ staining pattern.

Treatment for pemphigus vulgaris can include both topical and systemic corticosteroids, immunosuppressants like azathioprine or mycophenolate, and rituximab, a monoclonal antibody that binds to B cells and inhibits the production of anti-desmosomal IgG antibodies. If not treated, pemphigus vulgaris can be fatal, usually due to the lesions becoming infected.

Bullous pemphigoid is another autoimmune blistering disease typically affecting those over 60 years of age but is more common than pemphigus vulgaris. Another difference between the two diseases is that in bullous pemphigoid, the autoantibodies bind to hemidesmosomes. This causes the basal cells to separate from the basement membrane, and a split forms between the dermis and epidermis, resulting in subepidermal bullae.

A trick to remember this is to think of the word ‘below’ when thinking of ‘bullous’ pemphigoid, since the bullae are ‘below’ the epidermis and basement membrane. These bullae are tense, so they don’t break off easily. Now, bear in mind that bullous pemphigoid is milder than pemphigus vulgaris, and the oral mucosa is spared.

Now, for diagnosis, it’s high yield to know that Nikolsky sign is negative. In addition, a skin biopsy and immunofluorescence can be done, which will show a linear IgG deposition on the dermal-epidermal junction. In terms of treatment, bullous pemphigoid responds well to corticosteroids.

Summary

Vesiculobullous and desquamating skin disorders are a group of conditions that affect the skin and cause blisters, sores, and scaling. These disorders can be caused by a variety of factors, including autoimmune disorders, infections, and allergic reactions.

Vesiculobullous disorders are characterized by the formation of fluid-filled blisters, which can vary in size and severity. Examples of vesiculobullous disorders include pemphigus vulgaris, bullous pemphigoid, and herpes simplex virus infections. Desquamating skin disorders, on the other hand, are characterized by the shedding or peeling of skin, often in the form of scales or flakes. These conditions can be caused by a variety of factors, including infections, allergies, and underlying skin disorders. Examples of desquamating skin disorders include psoriasis, atopic dermatitis, and seborrheic dermatitis.

Treatment options may include topical or systemic medications, such as corticosteroids or immunosuppressive drugs, as well as lifestyle modifications, such as avoiding triggers or irritants that can worsen the condition.

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